Explanatory alphabetical list of Romano-British place-names
Part 2: B
Part 2b: Br to Bu
BRABONIACO see BRAVONIACUM
BRANNOGENIUM
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(Celt) |
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(Ptol) |
(AI) |
(Mod) |
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Brav(n)ogenion |
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Brannogenium |
Bravonio |
Leintwardine |
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(var. Branogenium) |
(Iter XII) |
(Herefordshire) |
Note 1:
Rivet and Smith see the Brano part of the name as being derived from hypothetical British bran(n)o, taken to mean ‘crow’ or ‘raven’. The gen element they consider related to hypothetical Gaulish cen, gen(n) or geno, taken to mean ‘to be born of’, ‘to descend from’.
But the place-name is topographical. Bran will have been brav originally, meaning ‘high hill slope’. The gen part of the name is an old-style element in the hill-letter n2, the element meaning ‘steep hill‘. It is not clear whether the second n in Brannogenium is intrusive or is part of the original ending of the name when it existed in the Brav form, a name such as Bravonio which, oddly enough, is the form given in the Antonine Itinerary.
Note that it would seem that in the region of Leintwardine the river Teme formed the frontier between the Ordovices to the north and a people using the hill-letter n2, these living south of the river. We have no name for those people, but we can see that they used the hill-letter n2. We see this hill-letter again in Magnis, the hillfort in Credenhill Park Wood, a little northeast of Romano-British Magnis at Kenchester. In addition the initial T of Teme is the river-letter corresponding to the hill-letter l1 used by the Ordovices, whereas the m is the river-letter corresponding to the hill-letter n2, used by the people living south of the river. The hillfort on Coxall Knoll, a little further up the Teme from Leintwardine, will have been an Ordovician frontier post, whereas the hillfort called Brandon Camp, on the south side of the Teme south of Leintwardine, will have been a frontier post of the people who used the hill-letter n2. Note that Brandon Camp stands on a slope, on a hillside, so the Brav element of Brav(n)ogenion is correct, Brav meaning ‘high hill slope’. The place-name Brav(n)ogenion will thus have been the name of the the Brandon Camp hillfort and was simply transferred, slightly modified to Brannogenium, to the Roman fort/settlement at Leintwardine itself. Romano-British Brannogenium was thus in the territory of the Ordovices, as Ptolemy indicates, but Celtic Brav(n)ogenium was not. It was in the territory of the people who used the hill-letter n2, hence the gen element in the name.
Note 2:
Example of v→n
[The entry for Brannogenium was inserted on 19 January 2021]
BRANODUNO
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(ND) |
(Mod) |
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Branoduno |
Brancaster |
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(Norfolk) |
Note:
Rivet and Smith see the first part of this name either as being derived from hypothetical British bran(n)o, taken to mean 'crow, raven', or as a personal name Bran(n)os itself derived from bran(n)o. The dunum part of the name they see as being derived from hypothetical Celtic dunos, taken to have meant 'hill' originally but to have taken on the secondary meaning 'fort' later.
The Roman fort stood on the lower slopes of a hill rising to the south to a height of a little more than 60 metres. It is possible that the Bran element was originally Brav, an old-style element meaning 'high hill slope'. Dunum includes the inversion-type topographical element dun meaning 'summit of hill'. So far as the present writer is aware there was no Celtic fort or settlement on top of that hill to the south of Brancaster, so presumably the dunum ending, just meaning 'fort', was added by the Romans themselves to the Celtic name of the site of the fort. This may have been Brav, as discussed above, or it may have been the old-style element Br, meaning 'high hill', with an ano ending.
BRANOGENIUM
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
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(Mod) |
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Bravogenium |
Branogenium (58) |
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Clyro/Hay-on-Wye |
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(Powys) |
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or, more probably |
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Leintwardine |
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(Herefordshire) |
Note 1:
Rivet and Smith see the first part of this name as being derived from hypothetical British bran(n)o, taken to mean 'crow' or 'raven', or, alternatively, as being a hypothetical personal name Branno-s. They see the gen element of the name as possibly being related to hypothetical Gaulish cen, gen(n) or geno, taken to mean 'to be born of, descend from', the element appearing in compound personal names after the name of a god or an animal, so that the name Brannogenos might mean 'born of a deified crow or raven'. The meaning of the whole name Branogenium might then be 'Brannogenos's place'.
Branogenium, however, will originally have been Bravogenium, where brav is an old-style topographical element meaning 'high hill slope' and gen is an old-style element meaning 'steep hill'. Note that the fort at Clyro/Hay-on-Wye did indeed stand on a hillside.
But note that there is a problem concerning Branogenium and Clyro. The large Clyro fort embraces the summit of the hill and extends some considerable distance down the slope, and the hillside is in places fairly steep. The name Branogenium is thus not inappropriate but since it contains two old-style elements it will have been coined at least 150 years before any Roman set foot in that part of the country. It will thus have been the name of a Celtic/Iron Age hillfort or settlement. That hillfort or settlement will have to have been on the same site or on a similar site somewhere else in the vicinity, the name then being transferred to the Roman fort when this was built. But so far as the writer can determine there was no such Iron Age hillfort or settlement in the vicinity of Clyro, so it is doubtful that Ravenna’s Branogenium was the Roman fort at Clyro. In this case it seems best to conclude that Ravenna’s Branogenium was the same place as Ptolemy’s Brannogenium (variant form Branogenium) at Leintwardine.
Note 2:
Example of v → n
[The entry for Branogenium was last modified on 29 March 2022]
BRAVONIACUM
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(Celt) |
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(AI) |
(ND) |
(Mod) |
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Brovonacis |
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Brovonacis |
Braboniaco |
Kirkby Thore |
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(Iter II) |
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(Cumbria) |
Note 1:
Jackson sees a derivation from hypothetical bravon, taken to mean 'quern', the name as a whole perhaps comprising a personal name Bravonios, meaning 'Quern man', with an aco suffix, the suffix perhaps meaning 'estate of' or 'property of'.
It is conventional to take Bravoniacum to be the correct form of this name, but the AI form is earlier than that of the ND and so is inherently likely to be closer to the original Celtic name. Kirkby Thore lies on the lower slopes of high ground rising to more than 800 metres above the site of the Roman fort. It is therefore most likely that the name was originally simply Brovon, where the brov part of the name is an old-style topographical element meaning 'high hill slope', to which an acis ending was added at some point.
Note 2:
Example of v → b
BRAVONIO see BRANNOGENIUM
BREMENIUM
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
(Ptol) |
(AI) |
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(Mod) |
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Bretemena |
Bremenium |
Bremenium |
Bremenio |
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High Rochester |
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(a river) |
(185) |
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(Iter I) |
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(Northumberland) |
Note:
Jackson saw a derivation from hypothetical brem, taken to mean 'to roar', the then name of the Sills Burn at High Rochester being presumed to be Bremia, meaning 'roaring stream'.
But the fort at High Rochester took its name from the nearby river Rede, then called the Bretemena. The fort was thus called Bretemenium (where enium is just an ending), which with the loss or omission of te yielded the form Bremenium. Note that the river-letters r, t and m of Bretemena correspond to the hill-letters m, l1 and n2 in Gamblidandi/Gambildandi, apparently the original form of Habitanci at Risingham, on the river Rede. The earliest river-letter in Bretemena is b, corresponding to the hill-letter s, so a people using that hill-letter must have lived somewhere in the valley of the river Rede at an earlier date. Bretemena, with loss or omission of the river-letters b and m and of the ena ending, yields the form Rete, which with the common change t → d gives us the modern river-name Rede.
[The entry for Bremenium was last modified on 17 May 2021]
BREMETENRACO/BREMETONNACI see BRESNETENACI
BREMIA
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
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(Mod) |
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Bremia |
Bremia (54) |
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Pen-y-Gaer |
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(Powys) |
Note:
This name is generally assigned to the fort at Llanio and is believed to be derived from hypothetical British brem, taken to mean 'to roar', the name Bremia then being assumed to mean 'roaring river'. The name is assumed to be related to the name of the Afon Brefi. But the Afon Brefi is a minor stream which comes in from the east to join the river Teifi at a point about a mile south of the Llanio fort, which stands on the west bank of the Teifi. It is therefore exceedingly unlikely that there is any connection between the name of the fort at Llanio and that of the Afon Brefi. In other words it is most unlikely that the Llanio fort was called Bremia, even though this identification is widely accepted.
It seems much more sensible and reasonable to assume that Ravenna is going up the Usk valley at this point, so that Bremia is the next fort after Abergavenny, namely that at Pen-y-gaer, a little to the NW of Crickhowell. Bremia is a topographical compound in the hill-letters r and m, where the old-style element br means 'high hill'. It may be noted that the fort stands at the foot of a hill which rises to a height of some 300 metres above the fort itself. And the hill on the other side of the fairly narrow valley rises to some 600 metres above the fort. The name Bremia thus seems entirely appropriate for the location. But note that as in the case of other old-style compound place-names Bremia was most probably the name of a Celtic hill-fort or settlement and was simply transferred by the Romans to a new fort which they built nearby. The most likely candidate for Bremia is the hillfort called Coed y Gaer, about one and a half kilometres to the north of Pen-y-Gaer.
BRESNETENACI
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
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(AI) |
(ND) |
(Mod) |
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Vresmedenaci |
Bresnetenaci |
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Bremetonnaci |
Bremetenraco |
Ribchester |
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(124) |
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(Iter X) |
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(Lancashire) |
Note 1:
Jackson sees the name as having been British Bremetonacon, based on a hypothetical river-name Bremetona meaning 'roaring river'.
The name, however, seems quite clearly topographical, and, as always, in trying to work out the meaning of the name it is wise to start with the earliest form we have, Ravenna's Bresnetenaci. But this does not look original - one would not normally expect the name to include the hill-letter n twice (though there are a few names where this occurs) and so, given that the AI and ND forms both include an m, it is likely that the first n in Ravenna's form is the result of n/m confusion at some stage of copying. In addition tenaci will originally have been denaci, an inversion-type element meaning 'summit of hill steep'. We are therefore looking at a name somewhat of the form Bresmedenaci, comprising the hill-letters r, s, m and n, these corresponding to the river-letters s, b, r and m (for major rivers). And already one can see here the letters of the river-name Belisama, long considered to have been the old name of the river Ribble at Ribchester, but with an r rather than an l. In other words it appears that the Celtic name of the river had in fact been Berisama and this was changed to Belisama, no doubt by Gaulish troops who were stationed at Ribchester and who worshipped the goddess Belisama or were at least familiar with her name. And now we can reconstruct the Celtic place-name since the chronological order of the hill-letters in the place-name must be the same as the chronological order of the corresponding river-letters in the river-name. The chronological order of the river-letters is presumably first b, then r, then s and finally m, so the hill-letters in the place-name must occur in the chronological order first s, then m, then r and finally n. The n is already the latest hill-letter in the place-name, being present in the inversion-type element denaci, so we need to amend the Bresm of Bresmedenaci to ensure that the hill-letters r, s and m are in the chronological order s, m, r. This appears to require that the name had actually been Vresmedenaci, in which the inversion-type element Vr meaning 'side of a hill' is qualified by the old-style compound esm in the hill-letters s and m. But the name Vresmedenaci is not actually appropriate for the site of the Ribchester fort. It will have been transferred to Ribchester from the hillfort known as Portfield Camp at SD 746 355, southeast of Whalley in Lancashire. This appears to be the hillfort nearest to Ribchester. The hillfort appears to stand at the top of a steep slope, hence the denac element of the name (denac means ‘summit of hill steep’), but the ground at the top of that slope is not level, even if the ground inside the hillfort itself has been artificially levelled (see the Pastscape website of Historic England for a reference to this levelling). The ground appears from the OS maps to rise from SE to NW, so one assumes that the hillfort did actually stand on the slope when it was taken over by the r-people, who added the Vr element to the name. The artificial levelling was presumably carried out by the n-people when they seized control of the hillfort. But the Portfield Camp hillfort stands above the river Calder, so it may be that the name Berisama was applied to the river Calder and that part of the modern river Ribble downstream of the confluence of the two rivers. That part of the modern Ribble upstream of the confluence will have had a different name, perhaps a name as simple as Ribelena, including the river-letter l applied to minor rivers and tributaries. Alternatively, the name Berisama may have been applied only to that part of the modern Ribble downstream of the confluence of the two rivers, Calder then being a different river-name, perhaps a Celtic composite river name comprising the place-name element cal, meaning ‘steep hill’, and the river-suffix der, this including the river-letters t, changed to d, and r, where the river-letter t corresponds to the hill-letter l in the cal element. That part of the modern Ribble upstream of the confluence with the Calder will still have had a different name, a name such as Ribelena, where the river-letter l is in this case applied to what was seen as one of the two headwaters (the other headwater being the Calder) of the main river, i.e. that part of the modern Ribble downstream of the confluence. The main river was called the Berisama, including the river-letter m. The Roman fort at Ribchester thus actually stood on the banks of the river Berisama, and at some point Berisama changed to Belisama, as indicated above.
For those puzzled by the river-name Berisama it may be noted that the river-letters s and m are still used in the old-style manner in the river-name even though the corresponding hill-letters r and n are used in inversion-type elements in the place-name Vresmedenaci. There are a few other examples of this peculiarity in the north of Britain. For example in the case of the place-name Mugulesde, apparently the Celtic form of Ravenna’s Ugueste at Stirling, the hill-letter m is used in the inversion-type manner in the place-name, but the corresponding river-letter r is still used in the old-style manner in the river-name Bdora (the Forth). But as a general rule, where a hill-letter is used in the inversion-type manner in a place-name then the corresponding river-letter is also used in the inversion-type manner in the corresponding river-name. Thus in Elconionemedo (Launceston) close to the river Tamar, the l of the place-name is the hill-letter l1 used in the inversion-type manner and the corresponding river-letter t is also used in the inversion-type manner in the river-name, i.e. it comes before the river-letters m and r corresponding to the hill-letters n and m in the old-style part conionemedo of the place-name.
Note that Vresmedenaci had evidently changed to Bresmetenaci by the date the first century map used by Ravenna was drafted. Bresmetenaci then changed to Bremetonnaci by the date of compilation of the AI and the latter form then changed to Bremetenraco by the date of the ND.
Note 2:
Example of v → b
Example of d → t
Example of n/m confusion
[The entry for Bresnetenaci was last modified on 27 September 2024]
BRIBRA
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
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(Mod) |
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Bribra |
Bribra (119) |
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Moresby |
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(a river) |
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(Cumbria) |
Note:
Rivet and Smith regard the first r in this name as being intrusive, so that the correct form is Bibra, this being thought to be derived from hypothetical British bebro-s or bibro-s, taken to mean 'beaver'. Bibra would then be a river-name meaning 'the brown one' or 'beaver-river'.
The odd-looking name Bribra is, however, correct as it stands. It comprises an element br in the hill-letter r, the element meaning 'high hill', and a river-compound br comprising the river-letters b and r. It is not possible to say which element is which because a river-element may be added as a prefix or a suffix to a place-name comprising one or more hill-letters. But the name is indeed that of a river, here the Lowca Beck, the name simply having been transferred by the Romans to the fort which they built up on the high ground immediately south of the stream, the fort now being known as Moresby.
BRIGE
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(Celt) |
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(AI) |
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(Mod) |
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Brige |
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Brige |
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Tatchbury hill-fort |
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(Iter XV) |
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(Hampshire) |
Note:
Rivet and Smith see a derivation from hypothetical briga, taken to mean 'hill', "often particularised as 'hill-fort'".
The brig of Brige is a transitional topographical element meaning 'high hill steep'. Iter XV places Brige 11 Roman miles from Winchester on a road to Sorbiodoni at Badbury Rings (not Old Sarum, by Salisbury). This would apparently locate Brige just west of the point where the Roman road (Margary road 422) crossed the river Test, thought to have been near Nursling Mill, just south of the point at which the M27 motorway crosses the river. There is high ground on the west side of the river at that point, as at Shorn Hill, though it is not clear whether it is reasonable to describe that hill as being high and steep. It seems more likely that Brige was the then name of Tatchbury hill-fort, not far from the line of the road, and that the Romans simply transferred the name to a nearby fort of their own, presumably built to control the crossing of the Test. It is of course possible that the Romans built a post of their own inside the hill-fort after persuading the occupants to leave.
BRIGOMONO
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
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(Mod) |
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Brigomono |
Brigomono (174) |
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Great Broughton |
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(North Yorkshire) |
Note:
Rivet and Smith see this name as a corruption of Ptolemy's Rerigonium in the territory of the Novantae and provide a derivation based on the latter name. However, the order of names in Ravenna makes it quite clear that Brigomono was not in Scotland. Richmond and Crawford saw the name as possibly being derived from hypothetical briga, taken to mean 'hill', the name as a whole perhaps meaning 'high hill'.
The name Brigomono appears to comprise the transitional element brig, meaning 'high hill steep', and the hill-letter m. The high, steep hill in question will be the escarpment rising steeply to a height of around 300 metres above Great Broughton and barely one kilometre to the south. Indeed Celtic/Iron Age Brigomono was probably in this latter area, perhaps a hillfort or defended settlement somewhere along the top of the escarpment, the Romans simply having transferred the name to Great Broughton.
Note that in theory the elements of Brigomono could be old-style Br (meaning ‘high hill’) and old-style gom (meaning ‘steep hill’). However, this would place the hill-letters r and m in the chronological order first r and then m, which is contrary to the normal chronological order, this normal order being seen in the Yorkshire names Cambrolanda (Cambroianna) and Cambroduno (Camboduno at Eccleshill in Bradford). In addition, there would appear to be no other place-name with an old-style element in the hill-letter r in the region around Great Broughton. But there is an inversion-type element in the hill-letter r in Castaractonion (Cataractoni) at Catterick and the letter s at the front of the river-name Seven (a tributary of the Rye) may be the river-letter s corresponding to the hill-letter r used in the inversion-type manner. It also appears that the Celtic name of Roulston Scar, a hillfort east of Thirsk, was Deriscoti, including the inversion-type element Der. It thus seems most likely that the elements of Brigomono are indeed transitional Brig (meaning ‘high hill steep’) and inversion-type m. We also see the hill-letter m used in the inversion-type manner further south in Lucamosessa (Camulosessa) at Malton.
[The entry for Brigomono was last modified on 17 May 2021]
BRINAVIS
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
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(Mod) |
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Brinavis |
Brinavis (77) |
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Bicester |
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(Oxfordshire) |
Note:
Rivet and Smith see this name as a duplicate of Durobrabis at Rochester, Kent. Williams saw the name as meaning 'the place on the brown stream' based on a hypothetical root brun, taken to mean 'brown'. On the basis of that suggested derivation Richmond and Crawford thought Brinavis might have been at Woodeaton in Oxfordshire, overlooking the river Cherwell.
The order of names in Ravenna appears to indicate that Brinavis was a Roman fort at Bicester. The name is a compound in the hill-letters r and n, where the old-style element br means 'high hill', clearly a reference to Graven Hill, immediately south of Bicester and east of the Roman town at Alchester, which was presumably founded later than the fort.
BROCARA
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
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(AI) |
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(Mod) |
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Brocara |
Brocara (156) |
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Brocavo |
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Brougham Castle |
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(Iter V) |
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(Cumbria) |
Note 1:
Rivet and Smith suggest a derivation from hypothetical broc meaning 'pointed rock, sharp peak', but prefer a derivation from hypothetical Celtic vroica taken to mean 'heather', the name then meaning 'heathery place'.
But the broc of Brocara is most probably a transitional element in the hill-letter r and meaning 'high hill steep', the hill in question presumably being that on the other side of the river Eamont.
The AI form retains the element broc but changes the ending from ara to avo. It is not clear whether this is anything other than a copying error.
Note 2:
Example of change of ending from ara to avo
BROCAVO see BROCARA
BROCOLITI
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(Celt) |
(Rav) |
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(ND) |
(Mod) |
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Brocoliti |
Brocoliti (148) |
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Procolitia |
first, Newbrough |
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later, Carrawburgh |
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(Northumberland) |
Note 1:
Scholars offer an impressive choice of meanings for this name. Williams suggests 'place infested with badgers' based on hypothetical British brocco taken to mean 'badger' and litu taken to mean 'feast'. Rivet and Smith suggest 'place full of pointed rocks' based on hypothetical broc, taken to mean 'pointed rock, sharp peak', and litu, though they prefer 'heathery place', 'place covered with heather' based on hypothetical Celtic vroica, taken to mean 'heather', and litu.
It is, however, clear that Brocoliti is a topographical name. It appears to be a compound in the transitional element broc meaning 'high hill steep' and the inversion-type element lit meaning 'hill high'. Ravenna's Brocoliti was the Trajanic fortlet at Newbrough (this is explained in Chapter 20: Rome's frontiers in northern England), there being a high, steep hill immediately west of the fortlet. The name was later transferred to the Hadrianic Wall fort at Carrawburgh and at some point the initial B changed to P and the name became Procolitia.
Note that in theory the elements of Brocoliti could be old-style Br (meaning ‘high hill’) and transitional colit (meaning ‘steep hill high’). However, the place-names in that region indicate a westwards drift of r-people over time. We thus see old-style elements in the hill-letter r in Lobocarion (Corielopocaríum) at South Shields, in Serduno at Wallsend and in Condecor at Benwell. We see a transitional element in Coritisotar (Coritiotar) at Corbridge and an inversion-type element in Velurcion at Grindon Hill. Newbrough is between Corbridge and Grindon Hill, so it is most probable that the r-element in Brocoliti is indeed transitional Broc (meaning ‘high hill steep’).
Note 2:
Example of b → p
Example of transfer of name to new site
[The entry for Brocoliti was last modified on 17 March 2021]
BROVONACIS see BRAVONIACUM
BURRIO
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(Celt) |
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(Ptol) |
(AI) |
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(Mod) |
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Bulgaeum |
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Bullaeum |
Burrio |
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Usk |
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or |
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(Iter XII, XIII) |
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(Monmouthshire) |
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Buldaeum |
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Note 1:
Jackson appears to have considered this name to be derived from a personal name Burros, which is said to have been known in Gaul, and itself derived from hypothetical burro, taken to mean 'stout, sturdy, big'. The place-name might then mean 'place of Burros'.
Ptolemy's form will be the earlier, so we are really looking for the meaning of the name Bullaeum. Usk is surrounded by hills, so it seems likely that Bullaeum is a topographical name, though one which has been altered. Doubled consonants are rare in the earliest forms of Romano-British place-names, so it seems safe to assume that one l, most probably the second one, was originally some other letter. Clearly, if the name refers to the actual site of the Usk fortress, the second l cannot have been a d or a v, since the location of the fortress is neither on the summit of a hill nor on the side of a hill. It seems most likely, then, that the name was originally Bulgaeum, where bulg is a transitional element meaning 'high hill steep' (cf. the bulg element of Bladobulgio, the original form of the AI's Blatobulgio). The high, steep hill in question is presumably the one immediately north of the fortress. But at some stage lg → ll and later ll → rr, this yielding the AI's Burrio. One sees the same change of l → r in the case of Valteris → Verteris. Valteris at Brough-under-Stainmore was a Flavian fort, whereas Verteris first appears in the much later AI.
But note that there are place-names in that region which use the hill-letter l in an old-style manner, for example Nemedonbala (Celtic form of Metambala) at Lydney and Alvinundo (Celtic form of Albinumno) at Welshbury Camp. It is therefore possible that Bullaeum was originally an old-style name, presumably of the form Buldaeum, where buld means 'high hill summit'. This will have been the name of one of the Celtic hill-forts in the vicinity and was simply transferred by the Romans to their fortress at Usk. There is one hill-fort a little to the east-southeast of Usk at Gaer fawr and another a little due north of Usk, at the northern end of Llancaeo Hill.
Note 2:
Example of lg/ld → ll
Example of l → r
[The entry for Burrio was last modified on 08 April 2021]
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